Methodology Of Cyberbullying Studies Psychology Essay

Methodology Of Cyberbullying Studies Psychology Essay According to Dooley, Pyzalski, Cross (2009, p.182), to date, many authors face difficulties in defining and comparing cyberbullying because of the use of different methods. (No Flow from reason of different method to definition) Cyberbullying has been from a general perspective defined as bullying through an electronic means. Drawing from Smith et al. (2008, p.376), cyberbullying refers to an aggressive, deliberate act done by a person or a group of people, using electronic contact means, repeatedly for a certain period against a person who is not able to easily defend herself or himself. This definition emphasizes on the act being aggressive, deliberate, and repetitive as well as having the presence of power imbalance. Belsey (2004) further defines cyberbullying as using technologies of information and communication to support intentional, frequent, and hostile conduct by a person or a group, with the aim of harming other people. From Belseys definition, power imbalance is missing, which implies that power does not necessarily form an essential component of cyberbullying. On the other hand, Wolak, Mitchell, Finkelhor (2007, p.52) argue that, an accurate definition should view repeated actions of online hostility as online harassment (How is this link to the previous point of Belseys definition?). In addition, since the victim can terminate negative online relations easily, he or she possesses a certain level of power, which they were not capable of having if the harassment took place within the schoolyard where they cannot escape easily. On the contrary, there are cases of online harassment, which the victim cannot terminate easily such as difficulties involved in getting rid of information from t he internet (From where? What does this show?). The identification of the main elements of cyberbullying is necessary for a uniform progress in cyberbullying studies. According to Vandebosch van Cleemput (2008, p.500), a research was done through focus groups on 10 to 19 year olds in Belgium regarding their experiences on cyberbullying and their use of information and communication technology. The findings of the research showed that, cyberbullying actions are consistent with the definitions such that they are deliberate, repetitive, and typified by an imbalance of power (Mention Results). These features characterize traditional face-to-face bullying. The research also proposed that, in cyberbullying, behavior is more important as compared to the medium used (What medium? What does it show?). Kowalski Limber (2007, p.24) further define cyberbullying as, simply the electronic type of face-to-face bullying instead of a distinct phenomenon. Viewing cyberbullying as simply a form of face-to-face bullying can overlook the difficultie s of such behaviors. (Mention overall non-consensus with definitions) Differences between Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying According to Zacchilli Valerio (2011, p.11), traditional bullying involves numerous key components. Bullying is aggressive, deliberate, includes power imbalance and is also repetitive. Aggression refers to any conduct aimed at harming another person. Bullying involves deliberate harm exerted on another person and it is, therefore, not playful. Drawing from Coloroso (2008), traditional bullying takes three main forms including verbal, relational, and physical. Verbal bullying is the most widespread form and involves the use of words to harm other people. Physical bullying is visible and include behaviors like kicking, hitting, biting and slapping. Relational bullying is widespread amid girls as compared to boys. It may involve ignoring, exclusion and spreading rumors. Further, cyberbullying appears to have a number of features of both relational and verbal bullying. Cyberbullying is a new research area (When was it formerly studied?), and it is thus vital to have an apparent definition regarding what cyberbullying entails. Hinduja Patchin (2008, p.152) suggest that, cyberbullying is willful and can cause continual harm to another person through the means of electronic content. This definition focuses on the notion that, cyberbullying entails an intention, and done for a certain period. Smith et al. (2008, p.376) suggested an identical definition where they define cyberbullying as an intentional, aggressive and repeated act by a person or a group using electronic contact means against somebody who cannot guard herself or himself. This definition also emphasizes the idea that cyberbullying is a planned, aggressive behavior occurring several times. Kolwalski, Limber, Agatston (2008) compared and contrasted traditional bullying with cyberbullying based on definitions. The two kinds of bullying entail aggression, repetition, and an inequality of power. In terms of differences, cyberbullying is more appealing as compared to traditional bullying due to anonymity. For instance, a person can be a victim of bullying for a long time without identifying the bully. Therefore, a bully may consider cyberbullying more appealing since it is very hard to track the origin of the bullying. Moreover, punitive fears and disinhibition differentiate traditional bullying from cyberbullying. When teens or children become victims of cyberbullying, they may not tell an adult about it for fear of being deprived the use of cell phones or computers. Disinhibition happens when people do or say things that they cannot do if the victims could identify them. Unlike cyberbullying, victims of traditional bullying mostly identify their bullies (Olweus, 1993). ( What does this show?) Debates and Arguments Regarding the Definitions Most arguments and debates among authors on the definitions of traditional bullying and cyberbullying relate to repetition and power imbalance. Even though majority of authors generally approve including repetition when defining bullying, debate regarding its importance and nature still continues. Tattum (1989, p.17) claimed that, continuing feelings of tension regarding an occurrence may be deemed repetitive even though it occurred just once. Repetition, especially in cyberbullying, is difficult to operationalize, since difference may exist between the perceptions of victim and the perpetrator on the number of incidences and the likely consequences. For instance, Slonje Smith (2008) maintain that, though repetition is apparent when the perpetrator sends several e-mails or text messages, it is not very apparent when the perpetrator creates one derogatory website or an online message, which several individuals can access (Shows Whats?). Regarding power imbalance, an example by Aalsma Brown (2008, p.101) of a second grade boy kicking a sixth grader every day in the bus suggests that, no bullying occurred since the second grader is smaller and less powerful physically compared to the sixth grader. From the example, assessing power imbalance is complex since it is hard to evaluate, particularly in children. However, Rigby (2007, p.19) argues that, wherever power imbalance exists, regardless of its source, the status of a person may be reduced. (Overall mini summary) Challenges of Self-Report Self-Report Studies on Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying (I dont want this portion, instead I want more emphasis on the challenges of self report problems of survey questions) According to Arsenio Lemerise (2004, p.989), many studies have repeatedly claimed that, bullies can have deficits concerning their morality (Very random; out of the blue). Recent integrative developmental moral hypothesis models have stressed the need for investigating both moral affect and moral cognition in comprehending individual variations in behaviors like bullying since there is an empirical and conceptual overlap between traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Bullying has a positive association with self-reported ethical disengagement in both adolescents as well as in children. A research by Pornari Wood (2010, p.86) indicated that, ethical disengagement is not related to traditional aggression, but to cyber aggression among peers. Moreover, it showed that adolescents and children who had frequent involvement in bullying became more ethically disengaged and had fewer ethical responsible justifications. Bullies justified their moral misbehavior of a supposed bully primarily from a selfish viewpoint, and their thoughts focused on receiving individual gain from their negative behavior (Menesini Camodeca, 2008, p.187). Ybarra Mitchell (2004) examined online harassment using 1,501 regular users of the internet aged between 10 and 17 years in the United States. In the study, online harassment referred to a deliberate and overt action of aggression to another individual who is online. The results showed that, 15% of all the participants were out of which 51% of them were also victims of traditional bullying, and 20% were cyberbullying victims (the remainder 29% ?). The results propose a high relation between traditional victimization and online harassment (Indicates what ). (No flow b/w points) In addition, Raskauskas Stoltz (2007) investigated 84 American students between the age of 14 and 18. They analyzed the links between traditional bullying, electronic bullying, traditional victimization, and electronic victimization. They particularly examined whether being a victim of traditional bullying or a traditional perpetrator predicts retaining the same position in electronic bullying. From the study , nearly all traditional bullies were also cyberbullies, and almost all traditional victims were cybervictims (Shows What?). Gradinger, Strohmeier, Spiel (2009, p.211) carried out a study to examine joint bully and victim conduct of students on 761 ninth grade students of 10 distinct schools in Vienna, Austria. From the study, cyberbullying, as well as cyber victimization, occurred rather infrequently than traditional forms. On the contrary, the incidence rates of students participating in cyberbullying and cyber victimization, which were 5% and 7% respectively, were lower than in former studies whose range was 11 to 49% and 10 to 22% for cyber victimization and cyberbullying, respectively. Such differences are due to a number of country-specific features that researchers cannot identify without cross-national studies. Moreover, the study found that, barely any student is exclusively a cybervictim. Rather, majority of cybervictims were also traditional victims. This implies the overlapping nature of cyber and traditional forms of victimization. Problems of Survey Questions Drawing from Ybarra Mitchell (2004a, p.1308), majority of self-report studies on traditional bullying and cyberbullying have methodological weaknesses, which include a theoretical approaches, weak evaluation instruments with a single-item questions, small sample sizes and absence of psychometric assessment of the instruments used (Explain?). Questionnaires are the common methods that researchers use to gather information on bullying during self-report studies. This method is effective in collecting adequate data from respondents due to its anonymity feature. On the contrary, most survey questions that researchers of bullying use have a problem of using a single item to define and investigate multiple bullying constructs. Smith Sharp (1994, p.13), for instance, a survey question for bullying can read, How often have you participated in bullying another student(s) in school in the past four months? (Implies that they are bullies as well) According to Nunnally Bernstein (1994, p.27), the use of single-item questions to assess constant bullying constructs is improper because; single items only recognize moderate to big distinctions and are not able to distinguish fine levels of a trait. Spector (1992, p.44) further asserts that, single items are undependable, and that, they lack the ability and scope to reveal detail. Cyberbullying self-report studies (Which ones?) have inherited the remarkable trend of research on traditional bullying to categorize students as victims and bullies. Such a system uses the single-item questions and an intrinsic model (By who? What model?) whereby, being a victim or a bully were mutually exclusive behavioral patterns. This has led to generalized rather than specific conclusions on bullying research (Parada, Marsh, Craven, 2005). Debates and Arguments among Authors Rigby Slee (1999, p.121) note that, many studies propose the presence of three kinds of victimization and bullying including physical, social and verbal. However, recent popular instruments use a one-item survey questions to assess bullying. For example, How often have you been bullied in school this year? single-item questions have a tendency of being frequency estimates like frequently, often, once a month or never, and yield scores which have a high statistical variance. Peterson Rigby (1999, p.483) however argue that, as research on bullying advances, more researchers are seeing the significance of assessing the three forms of bullying as well as victimization. Researchers have also been adding instruments as indicative of these forms. In the research, Peterson and Rigby assessed five behavioral aspects namely hurtful names, threatened, kicked or hit, unpleasantly teased, and isolated, to measure various bullying types. On the contrary, no self-report study had before 2004, ack nowledged the exact 3-factor framework adequately (Marsh et al. 2004). (How is this paragraph relevant to cyberbullying?) According to Ahmed Braithwaite (2004, p.38), the vastness of research on bullying consists of quantitative and continuous variables using self-report, teacher-report and peer-report measures of data. Researchers most frequently assess such data by dichotomization to generate results. Nevertheless, MacCallum et al. (2002, p.20) have spotted the fallacies of dichotomizing variables. According to them, dichotomization of quantitative and continuous variables results in loss of statistical significance and effective size, deformation of effects and the likelihood of researchers of overlooking non-linear relations. Due to these intrinsic methodological shortcomings of dichotomization, MacCallum et al. (2002, p.22), wind up that, these techniques ought to not be used unless they are vigorously justified. This is because when researchers dichotomize data for analyzing victimization and bullying, they unavoidably categorize children. Examples of such categorization include victims, bullies and those who are not affected. (Link to cyberbullying) Theories of Cyberbullying Theories Associated With Traditional Bullying Agnews general strain theory (GST) is one of the theories that have associations with traditional bullying. According to this theory, there are three kinds of strain including failure to attain positively valued ambitions, eradication of positively esteemed stimuli, and production of negatively treasured stimuli. GST primarily revolves around the notion that, strain comes from unconstructive relationships with other people. For instance, a bully is producing negatively treasured stimuli, whether emotional or physical abuse, to her or his victim. The sources of strain have indirect links with delinquency and other behavioral problems. This is because; strain generates negative effects such as anger or frustration. (No links b/w points) In addition, theory of planned behavior (? By who?) has relations with traditional bullying. The theory suggests that, attitudes towards conduct come from peoples behavioral beliefs. According to Bosworth, Espelage, Simon (1999, p.344), minors deem agg ressive conduct as validated when a person deserves it, have a likelihood of behaving aggressively. (How well does the theory explain results? Or results explain the theory?) Lack of Theories in Research of Cyberbullying to Explain the Phenomenon Hoffman Miller (1998, p.83) maintain that, a bigger percentage of the independent experimental studies that authors have done to investigate cyberbullying, none has sufficiently capitalized on current advances in the research of traditional bullying. Li (2007, p.4) adds that, more importantly, very little is known regarding the temperament of cyberbullying since there is no theory that theorizes its structure and thus, researchers have not developed psychometrically logical evaluation tools for measuring the construct of cyberbullying. In other words, Solberg Olweus (2003, p.242) argue that, there has been a limited use of theories by researchers to explain the phenomenon of cyberbullying. The studies that have used theories to explain cyberbullying have only touched on traditional bullying theories without even validating their application to cyberbullying. Theory of Mimetic Scapegoating Theory and Cyberbullying According to Norman Connolly (2011, p.287), Rene Girard bases his Mimetic Theory on the belief that, humans are mimetic beings. This implies that, people imitate what they see in other people. Increased imitation leads to increased likeness among individuals, and thus they compete for similar desires and end up becoming rivals. The boundaries amid individuals that maintain order start to crumble. Increased rivalry results in increased violence, while the distorted boundaries threaten destabilizing social order. The traditional man viewed a scapegoat as the only solution to the threat. Thus, by blaming a person or a group of persons for all the distress and hatred, people direct the violence of community towards the scapegoat. This theory applies to cyberbullying where an individual or a group of individual engages in cyberbullying activities out of peer pressure or imitation of what other people are doing. Scapegoating comes in where a group of people team up and direct their aggres sion towards their victims through incitation. Scapegoating is more common in social areas like in schools (Wilcox, 2009, p.9). Pros and Cons of Using Theories for Cyberbullying According to Marsh, Craven, Hinkley (2003, p.193), the use of theories to explain cyberbullying has several pros. To start with, it helps readers have a better understanding of the origin of certain behaviors in the community from a theoretical perspective. For instance, the use of mimetic theory shows how violence among individuals in the society comes about, and explains what inspires a person or a group of people to engage in cyberbullying. In addition, the use of theories provides a strong foundation on which to base future research on cyberbullying. This leads to the expansion of knowledge about the field since researchers are able to carry out experiments to validate such theories, and also either expound on the existing theories or develop new theories depending on the findings of their experiments (Schafer Graham, 2002, p.147). On the other hand, Griezel et al. (2008, p.2) argue that, the most significant issue that affects the cyberbullying field is that, regardless of man y competing models and theories trying to explain bullying actions, there is a scarcity of authenticated theory and experimental research to summarize cyberbullying experience. Debates and Arguments amongst Authors Piquero Sealock (2000, p.451) bases the general strain theory on the suggestion that, strain emerges from negative relationships. In addition, strain has a significant and generally positive relation with drug use and delinquency. Paternoster Mazerolle (1994, p.236) support this claim through their National Youth Survey, which showed that, delinquency weakens bonds with conventional institutions, while strengthening ties with deviant people. Mazerolle et al. (2000, p.89) oppose the claim by maintaining that, only a number of strains measures have a significant association with anger, and noxious experiences on neighborhood conditions.

Free Definition Essay - The Meaning of Courage :: Expository Definition Essays

The Meaning of Courage In life there are many terms that are relative to individual cultures. That means that the definition is different depending on the culture's location and its persons believe. The definition for one such term, courage, as defined by both Daniel Webster and Funk & Wagnalls is "That quality of mind or spirit enabling one to meet danger or difficulties/ opposition with firmness/fearlessness." The words that make courage a relative term are danger and opposition. The definitions of those words are what determine if a person or an act is considered to be foolhardy, courageous, or cowardice. Those labels change from society to society because people possess varying ideas as to what is danger and opposition means. For example, there are many types of people who encounter danger regularly like police, firefighters, cultural tribes, religious groups, teachers, advocates, doctors and nurses, criminals, and everyday people. Contrasting the difference in the type of danger encountered by each group shows what makes courage different. The difference between the danger for the police and the danger for the criminals is that one is done without a valid reason. The danger for the criminals is created by themselves and therefore even though they encounter danger it is not courageous. It on the other hand is either foolhardy or cowardice. Actions like killing sprees or random slashing are considered foolhardy because the persons responsible are taking unnecessary risk. These actions can also be considered to be cowardice because the people responsible are generally either unwilling to face the consequences for their actions or unwilling to face the underlying reasons for their bursts of violence. In my mind and most other westernized cultured people minds, I am correct because criminal acts are not generally accepted nor rewarded in our society. However, in the eyes of a criminal his/her acts are courageous and are accepted and rewarded with some exceptions such as rape. When we look at actions of some cultural tribes we generally judge their actions towards certain opposition as foolhardy. Actions like hunting styles or tribal initiations are judged to foolhardy because they are things that we as western civilized people do not do. We judge others ways of doing things and we completely ignore the fact that they are customs that have existed for many years and they are necessary for each cultures' survival. Free Definition Essay - The Meaning of Courage :: Expository Definition Essays The Meaning of Courage In life there are many terms that are relative to individual cultures. That means that the definition is different depending on the culture's location and its persons believe. The definition for one such term, courage, as defined by both Daniel Webster and Funk & Wagnalls is "That quality of mind or spirit enabling one to meet danger or difficulties/ opposition with firmness/fearlessness." The words that make courage a relative term are danger and opposition. The definitions of those words are what determine if a person or an act is considered to be foolhardy, courageous, or cowardice. Those labels change from society to society because people possess varying ideas as to what is danger and opposition means. For example, there are many types of people who encounter danger regularly like police, firefighters, cultural tribes, religious groups, teachers, advocates, doctors and nurses, criminals, and everyday people. Contrasting the difference in the type of danger encountered by each group shows what makes courage different. The difference between the danger for the police and the danger for the criminals is that one is done without a valid reason. The danger for the criminals is created by themselves and therefore even though they encounter danger it is not courageous. It on the other hand is either foolhardy or cowardice. Actions like killing sprees or random slashing are considered foolhardy because the persons responsible are taking unnecessary risk. These actions can also be considered to be cowardice because the people responsible are generally either unwilling to face the consequences for their actions or unwilling to face the underlying reasons for their bursts of violence. In my mind and most other westernized cultured people minds, I am correct because criminal acts are not generally accepted nor rewarded in our society. However, in the eyes of a criminal his/her acts are courageous and are accepted and rewarded with some exceptions such as rape. When we look at actions of some cultural tribes we generally judge their actions towards certain opposition as foolhardy. Actions like hunting styles or tribal initiations are judged to foolhardy because they are things that we as western civilized people do not do. We judge others ways of doing things and we completely ignore the fact that they are customs that have existed for many years and they are necessary for each cultures' survival.

Vegetables - Its Whats for Dinner Essay -- Vegetarianism Vegetarian

Vegetables - It's What's for Dinner James Garner, a washed-up hollywood celebrity, was paid by the meat board to tout beef as, "Real food for real people." In April of 1988, James Garner underwent a quintuple coronary artery bypass surgery (Realities 1989). This is just one of the shocking side effects of consumption of meat. "The practice of vegetarianism involves eating vegetable products and not consuming meat, fish, and in many instances, egg and dairy products." ("Vegetarianism"). Thus, a vegetarian diet can benefit individuals as well as the world. Vegetarianism is a very healthy, environmentally aware, animal friendly lifestyle. There are three major types of vegetarians. Lacto-ovo-vegetarians do not eat meat, but will consume dairy and egg products. Lacto-vegetarians do not eat meat or eggs, but will consume dairy products. Vegans consume no animal products of any kind (Farley, 12). In most cases, Vegans avoid leather, fur, wool, silk and other products made from animals. Advocacy of a non-meat diet, dates back to the middle of the first millennium. In fact, the first recorded teachings of non-meat diets, are the teachings of Pythagoras of Samos around five hundred and thirty b.c. From Plato onward, many Roman and Greek philosophers and writers advocated vegetarianism as an ethical way of life. Also, during the humanitarianism of the 17th and 18th centuries, sensitiveness to animal suffering began ("Vegetarianism"). Vegetarianism has firm roots in religion. It was practiced originally in connection with religious purification rituals. Many religious groups follow vegetarian diets. They consider eating flesh gluttonous, cruel and wasteful. In the Roman Catholic Church, Trappist monks have practiced vegetarianism... ...ion. Most horrifying is the fact that bulls raised for food production are often castrated without any type of anesthesia or pain-killers. Veal calves are force-fed and iron deficient, anemia-producing diet, never solid foods. (The Vegetarian Youth Network). Its quite obvious that a vegetarian diet for the whole world can benefit mankind and animals. Works Cited The Crazy Vegetarian. [Online] http://www.crazyveg.com. Farley, D. "More People Trying Vegetarian Diets." FDA Consumer Oct.1995:10- 13. Quick, S. "Eating Vegetarian? How to do it the Healthy Way." Glamour Sept. 1995:64. Realities 1989. [Online] http://www.cs.unc.edu/~barman/realities1989.html. Vegan Action. [Online] http://www.vegan.org/info.html#anchor707384. Vegetarian Youth Network. [Online] http://www.geocities.com/RodeoDrive/1154. "Vegetarianism." Compton's Encyclopedia 1995ed.

History and myth Essay

‘The World’s Wife revises fairytale, history and myth and reworks it into contemporary, feminist fables. ‘ With reference to three of the poems in the volume examine the techniques employed by Duffy in writing contemporary feminist fables. Duffy’s volume â€Å"The World’s Wife† is a collection of dramatic monologues where Duffy becomes a ventriloquist inventing the words, which famous, silent, wives from history or myth might have said. Her use of humour and play on clichi s creates a collective female voice where dominant male characters are being criticised. Duffy reworks contemporary feminist fables and adopts different personae by employing different techniques, which are particularly displayed in her poems, â€Å"Mrs Midas†, â€Å"Mrs Lazarus† and â€Å"Mrs Aesop†. Duffy’s use of witty humour in the poem â€Å"Mrs Aesop† allows her to condescend the male counterpart, by turning his famous fables against him and questioning his manhood. On the contrary, â€Å"Mrs Lazarus† portrays a more emotional persona grieving over her husband’s death, where her ‘other half’ fails to consider the impact of his return. Similarly, in â€Å"Mrs Midas†, the male character is overcome by greed, blinding his ability to comprehend the repercussions of his actions. The metaphorical autobiographies allow Duffy to adopt a variety of dramatic personae and assume a multiplicity of voices, which portray issues and views sensitive to her own. She explores the notion of the self in relation to the other, particularly in the poem, â€Å"Mrs Midas†. The poet is able to present a wide range of emotions through the practical persona that feels a sense of exasperation due to her husband’s selfishness. The sensual qualities of the persona are highlighted through the use of soft sounds, ‘breath†¦ brow’, and ‘my fingers wiped the other’s glass’. She is then depicted as multitalented, especially in comparison to her husband who ‘was standing under the pear-tree snapping a twig’. His pointless and ridiculous activity belittles his usefulness and thus increasing his wife’s, as it does not require much talent to carry out such an activity. The persona undertakes an anecdotal approach, principally when the tragedy is building up, belying the serious concern, ‘I said’ and ‘What in the name of God is going on? ‘ show the use of colloquial language, which help the persona’s voice emerge. The phrasing used throughout the poet emphasizes her practicality and ability to make sense out of any situation, ‘I served up the meal’ and ‘So he had to move out’, illustrate that she is not theatrical, but is calm and logical, which is a comparison to her partner’s childish and immature behaviour, ‘he toyed with his spoon’. The persona is able to rise above him, assert her authority and her use of bitter sarcasm introduces comedy to the poem. Duffy’s use of the clichi , which is commonly present in her poems, is used to show how worthless he has become and how ashamed and fearful she is for him, as he is a ‘fool’ who could not think beyond his short-term greed. Similarly, â€Å"Mrs Lazarus†, also has to face the consequences of her husband’s return after she finally manages to deal with her grief over his death and move on. The dramatic persona created in this poem is extremely loyal to her husband and devastated at the fact that she has lost ‘her other half’. ‘Howled, shrieked, clawed’ and ‘one empty glove’ reinforce the imagery of suffering and grief-stricken state. She is a persona very expressive of her emotions and goes through the entire pain of her loss, even to the extent where there are images of suicide because of what she is feeling, ‘double knot†¦ round my bare neck’. The alliteration of soft, ‘slept.. single.. stuffed’ and harsh sounds, ‘gone†¦ gutted†¦ glove’, bring emphasis to the range of her emotional suffering. As her memory of him and grief is receding, she develops a more practical, factual tone in her diction, ‘Then he was gone’, showing that she has finally moved on. When her husband returns, her phrasing and diction changes and it begins to sound more harsh and bitter, ‘rotting†¦ grave’s slack chew’, as a reflection of the fact that he is insensitive to her emotions, despite everything she has been through.

Ethnic literature Essay

The definition of ethnic literature â€Å"is literature like any other, except that it contains ethnic references. † (Reilly p. 2). Another definition of ethnic literature is when there is a literature work that contain religious beliefs, racial issues, linguistics, or cultural heritage. In another word, ethnic literature is the literary work that includes particular culture, beliefs, or linguistics distinction. Postcolonial literary theory draws attention in the issue of cultural difference emerging in the society. One of the issues which may often appear during the class discussion is hybridity. It seems that people who have been faced by the fact that they are living in a ‘hybrid world’ tend to be confused by their real status. They realize for their interest, but they can not avoid the possibility becoming ‘in between’. Although , they are included into one part, the native part, but on the other hand they can not deny the deep feeling to be pleasant considering themselves different with the other. There is a kind of more value they have compared with their surround, and they think it is worthy to be kept. Of course, this feeling comes into their mind by some reasons. There must be an additional value added into their original culture. The additional value may be in the form of a new ideology, belief or view which are brought by the dominating. The dominated rarely conscious with the impact. They usually only feel that it is a natural process which become the impact of daily social interaction they are engaged in. Another issue which emerges in postcolonial discussion is about dominated-dominating one. We can not expect who actually take the role as ‘dominating’ or ‘dominated’. The practice may turn over, the dominated may become the dominating in the same time toward different object, vice versa. We are also introduced by ‘Otherness’ theory. It makes someone consider that she or he are different from the other, and other people is not the same with her or him. Gadis Tangsi tells a story about a girl life, namely Teyi. She is a Javanese girl who grew up in the Javanese tradition. She lives with his parents and sibling in tangsi area. She was taught to become an obedient girl by her mother with many limitations as a girl. She helps her mother to sell fried bananas every day. Teyi finds herself limited by some rules which are considered as the right rules for her mother. She even does not know how ‘love’ or how to be ‘loved’ by a man. She was taught to be a polite woman. She finally finds who she is when she is introduced to Putri Parasi by Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi who has helped her. That is the beginning of her new experience to recognize a new world, the world that she has never imagined before. Putri Parasi teaches her everything to be ‘a good lady’. Putri Parasi likes Teyi for her politeness. She more likes Teyi after being saved when her disease comes immediately. Putri Parasi expects to teach her how to behave well. She even teaches Teyi to speak Dutch. Teyi starts to be able to read and write. Putri Parasi really wants to prepare her to be taken to Surakarta Keraton and introduced her to a man who will be married with her. She plans to make Teyi deserve to have a husband from Keraton families. In the novel Gadis Tangsi written by Suparto Brata, we can see some unexpected phenomenon occur. It makes me realize that actually there are still many things covered even by what Javanese people considered as ‘budaya adiluhung’. The word ‘politeness’, ‘hospitality’ and ‘dignity’ which come into people mind when they heard about Javanese culture become blur after they read this novel. Javanese woman who is considered as an obedient woman and become a mercy for whom takes her as a wife may be surprised by what Suparto tells about Teyi and Dumilah. He brings them in this novel as representative of Javanese woman character, in different point of view. However, the story about them, for me, is far from the stereotype of common Javanese women (may be just a few). The feeling of ‘in between’ seem to be experienced by Teyi. She starts to know about how the way the higher status people behave since she meets Putri Parasi. Teyi realizes that her life style is quite different from her, and she is glad when she knows that Putri Parasi does not mind introducing this new culture to her. From this intentional interaction, after she is taught how to behave like ‘putri bangsawan’, Teyi starts to consider she has a chance to be the same with them. Even she lives with her parents, she starts to consider that she is better than them. She has been raised from the lower part. She has more power than the people in the house. The very obvious impact of this teaching actually appears when Teyi has been left by Putri Parasi. After she passed away, Teyi become independent from the influence of Putri Parasi. Although, there are still some traces of her teaching inside Teyi which reflect in the way she behaves. She seems take the dominating position over her husband, Sapardal. Sapardal feeling about his lower position when they have been married becomes the cause of the divorce. Only two days of marriage, and Teyi considers that she has a right to sue divorce, while Sapardal can only keep silent without any comment. In this relationship, Sapardal as a man who actually considered as ‘the dominating’ take the role as ‘the dominated’. He does not feel on the same level with Teyi. He admits that he has no power compared to Teyi. He even has no courage to touch her in their first night of marriage. Here, we can see the role between man and woman has shifted. Brata seems to show us that the role of people in the society is like running on the moving wheel. The dominating and dominated are only a symbol of someone position, which also can be shifted based on where we are standing. Sapardal may fail in maintaining his position as superior in front of Teyi. The cultural change also appears in this novel. Sexual intercourse is not considered as a sacral any longer for almost all the women in this novel. During my reading, I wonder if I read Indonesian culture literary work, especially belong to Javanese one. However, Brata wrote the novel using the Indonesian condition in the past, in the colonial occupation. In this situation, it is not easy to determine which one who still hold the original value since the influence of other ideology come into the life in that simple way. The force of a new ideology input is not directly felt in this novel. The indigenous people enjoy the acculturation between the dominated and the dominating. It also happens in the shifting of the way they see sexual intercourse actually is. What we call as a taboo becomes commonly conducted by the people. Teyi is defined as a free woman, even she has been married and becomes a wife of Sapardal, and she breaks the rule by having intercourse with Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi. It seems that she wants to take a revenge to Dumilah who is considered had cheated her by having romantic affair with her master. Sapardal can not do anything. He has failed to become a good husband. This thinking is from his own side. When we look at this phenomenon, again, Teyi proves that she has had a power over a man from her own society. She starts to have a right to consider a man like Sapardal is not at the same level with her. However, in my opinion it will not happen if Sapardal never has the way of thinking. Actually, he has thought that she is great and different from the other woman in his environment before they are married. That makes he has no courage to touch her at their first night. It also makes Teyi feels not being regarding or respecting as a wife. She thinks that Sapardal has no desire toward her, and she thinks that it is better to ask divorce. What a short way of thinking! I found that Teyi has put a wrong way of thinking about what Putri Parasi had taught to her. It seems that she does not consider marriage as a sacral relationship any longer. ‘Love’ relationship has been considered as a ‘real’ relationship when we have passion to have sex with our couple. Is that so simple? That is the way Teyi think about love basically. It is shown also when she does not mind to have sex with her ex-master, Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi, and then she starts to love someone else, Ndara Mas Kus. There is no any guilty feeling. Finally, we can conclude that there are three aspect of postcolonial reading for Gadis Tangsi has been discussed above. First, hybridity appears when Teyi finds herself has involved and being a part of Putri Parasi’s society, Keraton environment since she has been able to behave and speak like her, so she considers that she is a part of Putri community. While she has that feeling, she still can not avoid other people consideration about her who is only becoming a servant and will not become like them. Second, dominating feeling toward Sapardal comes into her mind. There is dominating-dominated in shifting model between them. It seems a denial for a man who usually considered as the dominating one, while Teyi proves that it can be shifted. Last, ‘Otherness’ theory also emerges in this novel. After having taught to have attitude and behave like Putri Parasi model, Teyi finally considers herself different with other woman in her society. It appears in the way she treats Dumilah who is her old friend. She thinks that Dumilah has no right to become ‘a munci’ of Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi because she is not at the same level with her or Ndara. Reference Ashcroft, Bill, et. al. 1946. The Empire Writes Back. London : Routledge Barry, Peter. 1824. Beginning Theory. Manchester : Manchester University Press Brata, Suparto. 2004. Gadis Tangsi. Jakarta : Kompas Reilly, John. 1978. Critical Approaches to Ethnic Literature. London : Oxford University Press

A Study on How Contents can be distributed through

With these technologies, there is a greater opportunity for students to participate and collaborate with each other. Aside from its portability mobile devices such as smartness and tablets are more reasonably priced than desktops and laptops. Mobile devices are different from laptop or desktop computers. Mobile devices are small, portable and compact. They can often fit In a pocket or purse. Unlike laptop computers, which are expensive and heavy, mobile devices are relatively low cost, lightweight, and some work a very long mime on a charge or a couple of standard disposable or rechargeable batteries.Mobile devices are also the easiest method of accessing the internet. Most mobile devices are wife ready and can easily connect to any wife routers available in the area. Many mobile devices can, in effect, be â€Å"filled up† with hours upon hours of training and require no connection to a network, wireless or otherwise, until the time comes to replace old training content with f resh content, or to upload the results of assessments to a learning management system capable of tracking mobile learners.In many training situations, the learning experience for the student is largely unaffected by the way the mobile device accesses Information, wireless or otherwise. Rather, what differentiates m-learning from learning Is the nature of the mobile device Itself (Hanukkah & Prelacy 2003). In communication theory, the researcher wants to focus on the elements that can Influence the quality of the message through different kind of media.There are two major aspects that can affect the message; the physical delivery of the content such as network or phone lines and the impression of the message (Miracle, 2005) Architectural Design Extensible Markup Language (XML) coded-data can be converted into other structured formats in a common architecture for multi-channel delivery systems for m-learning such as Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML), Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMILE), Portable Document Format (PDF), etc. XML coded-data Is adapted to the capabilities of the requesting device via appropriate transformation processes.Thus such a model of multi channel delivery systems enables the adaptation of learning content to device, desired level of details of intent and semantic aspects. The model proves some remarkable advantages. Definition (DAD). The XML approach allows the definition of transformation processes (e. G. Using the XML transformation language XSLT, SOLO, or the XML query language Query). Such transformations enable easy adaptation of learning content to given requirements. Transformation processes enable real-time delivery as well as delivery of online content.Real-time delivery is used for online access to the content, where a quick adaptation to learners' requirements is requested. Most experts still prefer eating on a printed material because researches show that learning online significantly reduces learning efficiency and speeds up fatigues of the learners. That is, when the online content are the traditional printed scripts. Nowadays, there are already available educational APS and widgets that can be utilize by the students. These APS and widgets are interactive in nature with potential animations, video and audio.Display Lectures in the Mobile The researcher's approach in transforming the existing workstation-based display lectures to mobile devices is based on using an open generic specification language. Given the multimedia content of online lectures, SMILE 2. 0 was used. It is an XML based language for describing rich time-based multimedia content (WAC 2001). By building a converter from the current online lectures to SMILE the researcher was able to: (1) make use of the current set of software tools for generating online lecture scripts and related medias; (2) produce output that can be delivered to any device that supports a SMILE 2. Player; (3) potentially integrate materials from other sources, such as Microsoft Powering, Macromedia Flash, etc In contrast to the display structures in the mobile that require a workstation or laptop, an m-learning lecture is executed as a SMILE script via a SMILE. O player running on a smartened device. The script â€Å"choreographs† the presentation of full screen slides and their animated overlays (stored in GIF, JEEP or BUMP formats) with music and viceroy (stored in either MPH or WAVE formats).Control of the lecture presentation is handled via a set of small iconic buttons in a narrow â€Å"bar† at the top of the display. The navigation buttons currently available are: â€Å"move forward a slide†, â€Å"move back a slide†, â€Å"play the rent slide†, and â€Å"go to the slide index†. Additionally, a search system runs in parallel with the Pocket SMILE player and enables a user to search for text occurrences in the viceroy. The search system returns references to the slides, a nd animation sequences within the slides, where the queried text occurs (Smitten & Crimson, 2007).Figure 1: The lectures display in mobile system architecture Figure 1 shows that lectures are converted taking as input the original script files with the different medial elements such as images, audio, video, and texts The converter automatically detects and extracts slide titles and includes them in a slide index file; this is used to provide a â€Å"table of contents† for that lecture. The transcript of the viceroy text is scanned to create an index of terms for the search system; in building the index the converter removes punctuation marks, removes some stop words, and then applies stemming.The original script file is then converted to a Compatibles script file suitable for display on a handheld computer. During this process, the slide and images are rotated and the audio files converted to MPH from the original uncompressed BIFF format. The MPH files require about one eigh th of the storage is about half the time it takes to present in the lecture theatre (with no audience participation). A live lecture that fills a one (1) hour lecture slot, occupies about 12 megabytes of handheld storage (Shares, 2007).Multiplicand service: the proposed system The proposed system illustrates how content can be distributed through a multi channel service. A channel is defined as an architecture that can carry content to a device through specific interaction software. Following channels have been investigated in this discussion [8, 9, 10]: Mobile phones using the WOMB markup engage ; Laptops using the HTML markup language ; tablets using the SMILE markup language the application description for system illustrates in figure (2), the access to the application is made by two stages, client and proxy, each one with different functionalities.The researcher made assumptions and limitations. The research does not focus on the XML vocabulary used to store the content and the storage architecture. It does not focus on design and layout of the web page, but the underlying technology. Also, the multiplicand service has support for browsers that handle the following markup engages such as HTML, SMILE and WOMB. The researcher assumes that the Quality of Service (So) is ideal, in order to reach device adaptation, it is needed to build interface related ontology, and the ontology based automatic adaptation is discussed.The client can be PDA or PC, and the server can distinguish the different kinds of access devices. With the content control technology such as C/UP protocol, the server gets the device and browser features and returns back the proper interface presentation. Experimental Test for Multiplicand System On the client side, three types of wireless devices were used. First is the Samsung galaxy ace smart phone. It uses smart telecoms service that provides a maximum 13 Kbps transfer rate. The second one is Macomb pro laptop core 17 with 2. 2 GHz process or, 8 KGB RAM a 802. Leg compatible wireless card to connect to the access point in the lab. The connection rate was at 11 Mbps. This is considered to be a high end device. The third one is the Samsung galaxy tab and uses the same network adaptor and network connection as the laptop but with less computation power and memory. The proxy server is programmed and runs as a workstation. The proxy code includes several modules as a normal proxy server does. They are a server side module, responsible for setting up a connection with the web server; a client side module, in charge of the connection with clients; a cache management module; and a BPML parser.The web server used is Google. Com . The HTML page of Google. Com is less than k and rarely change, as in figure (2) above, three cases are designed to download a portion of the web page to the client, which is about kick size. In the remote case the page is downloaded from the origin site. The client sends out a quest, then the proxy re lays the request to the origin site, having received the client, the pages of the web sites were transferred on to the proxy server's local disk, and inserted some pairs of tags into the origin pages.Upon the user's request, the parts marked with are extracted and sent back to the client, and the cached case, an extracted copy of the web site, is transferred on to the proxy. When the user's request arrived, the copy was sent out immediately. Figure (3) shows the total time measured between the user's sending out the request and receiving the desired page. The performances of cached and extracted cases are very similar, whereas the remote case has two or three orders of magnitude of larger retrieving time. Each node represents the average time collected from 7 runs in the day of the test.According to the experimental results, the average time to process a cache hit is about ms, to fragment a k Google. Com home page is about ms, and to download it from the web is approximately mass. T he mass is due its relatively long expiration time, which results from pages downloaded from nearby proxy servers. The first observation is that to fragment a page on the local cache server is such faster than retrieving it. Conclusion The primary focus of this research is to find out the threshold of network speed that can significantly offset the benefits of our approaches on a wireless network based on our experiments.The successful implementation of programs in this research is to build learning content and distribute it through multinational to different users, those programs were tested successfully in transmission and reception of educational contents, the use of handheld devices can provide new opportunities for learning and communicating in local environment. In comparison with local developing steps towards m learning using local applications may consider as a step forward.Live video is one of the most challenging media type, today, wired devices can provide a reasonable q uality but with the presence of video converters, mobile devices can also provide quality video lectures already. The different combinations of media types require more of the underlying networks; such combinations will probably have diverse requirements to delay, bandwidth, and Jitter for maximum performance. Because of different device capabilities, an adaptation of the content ND the presentation is needed before it can be presented to the user.

St Marys College of Maryland (SMCM) Admissions Data

St Marys College of Maryland (SMCM) Admissions Data With an acceptance rate of 80  percent, St. Marys College of Maryland admits most of the students who apply each year. Those with good grades and test scores within or above the ranges listed below have a good chance of being admitted. If you are interested in applying, you will need to submit an application, SAT or ACT scores, official high school transcripts, letters of recommendation, and a personal essay. For more information about these requirements, be sure to visit the schools website, or get in touch with a member of the admissions team. Admissions Data (2016) St. Marys College Acceptance Rate: 80  percentGPA, SAT and ACT graph for St. Marys College of MarylandTest Scores: 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 510  / 640SAT Math: 490 / 610What these SAT numbers meanTop Maryland colleges SAT comparisonACT Composite: 23  / 29ACT English: 22  / 28ACT Math: 22  / 30What these ACT numbers meanTop Maryland colleges ACT comparison St. Marys College of Maryland Description Located on an attractive 319-acre waterfront campus, St. Marys College of Maryland stands on a historic piece of land first settled in 1634. Its a fitting location for Marylands only Public Honors College. The college boasts a 12 to 1  student/faculty ratio. Students at St. Marys College receive the benefits of a small,  liberal arts college  with the lower cost of state tuition. The schools academic strengths earned it a chapter of  Phi Beta Kappa. Student life on the water has led to some interesting student traditions such as an annual cardboard boat race and a winter swim in the river. St. Marys many strengths earned it a place on the list of  top public liberal arts colleges  and  top Maryland colleges. The most popular majors are  Biology, Economics, English, History, Political Science, and Psychology. Enrollment (2016) Total Enrollment: 1,629  (1,598 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 44  percent male / 56 percent female97  percent full-time Costs (2016-17) Tuition and Fees: $14,192 (in-state); $29,340 (out-of-state)Books: $1,200 (why so much?)Room and Board: $12,442Other Expenses: $1,566Total Cost: $29,400 (in-state); $44,548 (out-of-state) Financial Aid (2015 -16) Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 94  percentPercentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 87 percentLoans: 77  percentAverage Amount of AidGrants: $8,701Loans: $6,006 Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 87  percentTransfer-out Rate: 24 percent4-Year Graduation Rate: 65  percent6-Year Graduation Rate: 73  percent Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Basketball, Lacrosse, Sailing, Swimming, Tennis, Soccer, BaseballWomens Sports:  Sailing, Soccer, Lacrosse, Field Hockey, Cross Country, Basketball, Volleyball If You Like St. Marys College, You May Also Like These Schools: University of Delaware: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphGettysburg College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphHood College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphJames Madison University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphFrostburg State University: Profile  Elon University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphJohns Hopkins University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphUniversity of Virginia: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphGeorgetown University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphCollege of William Mary: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphMount St. Marys University: Profile  Washington College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT Graph Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics